Childhood Development in a Cultural Context †Childhood Development Research Paper

Childhood Development in a Cultural Context – Childhood Development Research Paper Free Online Research Papers Childhood Development in a Cultural Context Childhood Development Research Paper Childhood development and it’s implications to entire continents, nations, or more specifically, societies and cultures has gone through much research and development in the past decades. To illustrate, the research and development of childhood theories today involves theorists such as Jean Piaget (1920, e.g. child intellectual development) and Freud (1933, e.g. components of personality) to more recent theorists such as Lev Vygotsky (1934/1962, e.g. stages of cognitive development) and Urie Bronfenbrenner (1995, contextual development) (Sigelman Rider, 2003). Specifically, the following paragraphs will focus and illustrate on how children develop during infancy and early childhood according to the social relationships and cultural context(s) of the child as an individual or group member. According to (Sigelman Rider, 2003), development is defined as the changes and adjustments that individuals experience from the time of conception till death. They established that age grades, age norms and the social clock influence the development of individuals (children) socially. To illustrate, age grades are socially classified age groups which include pre-assigned statuses, roles, privileges, and responsibilities. Next, age norms refers to the society’s permitted and prohibited behaviours individuals’ should and should not do according to one’s age. Last, social clock refers to a sense of what and when things have to be done according to one’s age norms (Sigelman Rider, 2003). As society evolves parallel to as time progresses, the context in time becomes very important to understand the social environment. In addition, Valsiner (1988) denotes that social development functions hand-in-hand with the cultural environment. Thus, as we understand the d evelopmental process of the infancy and early childhood stage we must consider two factors such as the social environment and the cultural context of the child as an individual as we answer the developmental questions to attachment formation. According to Drewery and Bird (2004), attachment refers to an affectional bond between two people; and the field of attachment has inspired many theories and theorists in the research of attachment. Sigmund Freud for example, believed that a stable mother-child relationship (attachment) is very important to development (Sigelman Rider, 2003). Interestingly, many theorists (e.g. Freud, Erickson, and Bowlby) unanimously agree that the very first social relationship (attachment) of an individual is the most important relationship of all (Sigelman Rider, 2003). Infancy refers to children between the age range of 0 years to 2 years of life whereas early childhood refers to children between the age range of 2 to 6 years of life (Sigelman Rider, 2003). John Bowlby’s research on parent-child and other close relationships was the founding catalyst to â€Å"attachment† as commonly used in the field of psychology today. His research initially focused on children that were displ aced during and after wars from which he hypothesised based on the work of another psychologist, Renee Spitz, that children who were separated from their mothers developed significantly slower and inferior to their peers. This condition of separation between mother and child was defined as â€Å"Maternal deprivation† (Drewery Bird, 2004). Bowlby (1969) denoted that there are four principle theories that explain the nature of the â€Å"attachment theory† he noted. These theories are such as, to begin, the Theory of Secondary Drive states that every child has several physiological needs that drives the child to become attached to his/her mother due to the capability of the mother to care and supply to those needs. Second, he proposed the Theory of Primary Object Sucking where the infant inherently has a predisposition towards the human breast which soon after develops into an attached child-breast or child-mother relationship. Third, the Theory of Primary Object Clinging denotes that infants inherently have a predisposition to clutch or touch another human being (assumed as the source of need such as food and warmth). Fourth, the Theory of Primary Return-to-Womb Craving denotes that infants seek to return to the womb despising their environmental state. Based on the theories above, Bowlby developed the study of e thology, the study of â€Å"innate relationships between biology and behaviour† (Drewery Bird, 2004). To illustrate the theories above, Bowlby emphasised the biological aspects of attachment however, his conclusions were also parallel with social bases. Every theory stated above is seen as a basis where development and experience takes precedence over biological factors for example, an infant develops an attachment for his mother after seeing his/her mother as fulfilling his/her needs. The key point here is the process of learning (social) to depend (attachment behaviour) on the mother. In conclusion, according to Sigelman and Rider (2003) attachment theory according to Bowlby is encapsulated under two points relevant to this essay. First, the formation of attachment develops through the interaction between biological and environmental factors (social) during the infant and early childhood stages. Second, caregiver-child attachment relationships effect the later development and quality of relationships of the child. Thus, this signifies both a social influence (relationships) and a cultural influence (relationships practice). The following will explore the conclusions and findings from other theorists of attachment and how it relates to infant and early childhood development. First, Piaget (1932/1965) in Sigelman and Rider (2003) noted that there are two factors that contribute childhood development such as the caregiver-child relationship and the peer relationships the child has. He notes that even to the young age of infancy do attachments with peers influence the social development of the child. However, according to research findings by Mussen (1973), infants aged 2 years and below develop more when interacting with a single peer rather than a group of peers. To illustrate, Piaget’s conclusions suggest that the peer relationships or social environment of the child significantly influences the development of the child; development that cannot happen within a caregiver-child relationship. In addition, this peer relationship (equal status attachments) is considered to have a unique contribution to development as compared to caregiver-child relationships (parents are superior to child, unequal status attachments).Next, Lev Vygotsky was another theorist that explored the caregiver-child relationships of the child (Drewery Bird, 2004). His observations focused on the cultural environment of the child and believed that development occurs within the interaction between the people surrounding the child and the child individually. This concept of merging both social and cultural factors is called a â€Å"Sociocultural perspective† (Sigelman Rider, 2003). Vygotsky defines this as co-construction, a process where children learn with the aid of adults. How his theory relates to attachment and development is seen in the works of Van der Veer and Van Ijzendoorn (1988). They denoted that children in the infancy and early childhood stage participate in certain activities [e.g. play and learning activities (Sigelman Rider, 2003)] together with their caregivers or adults in genera l (teachers, relatives). Thus, within these activities the creation of Vygotsky’s concept of the â€Å"zone of proximal development† (Drewery Bird, 2004) functions to distinguish the role of the adult as the person of higher mental capability as compared to the child, creating a range or distance ( between adult and child) in which the child can learn. In addition, this concept is based on the assumption that higher mental functions (cognitive skills) are learnt through social interaction of supervision and assistance (Drewery Bird, 2004). Concurrently, these activities is characterised according to the culture of the child’s environment because activities differ according to culture. Van der Veer and Van Ijzendoorn (1988, p. 221) thus concluded that parent-child attachments are crucial for current and future cognitive development. Urie Bronfenbrenner on the other hand proposes a different view to adult-child learning relationship. According to Sigelman and Rider (2003), his bioecological approach (formally ecological approach) denotes that development occurs within a reciprocal system or in simple terms, a give-and-take relationship between the individual (child) and his/her environment. It is an approach which is dynamic and adaptive. Within the bioecological approach, Bronfenbrenner illustrates four environments system that influences or is influenced by the developing child. These systems are such as the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. To illustrate, we can use the systems to conceptualise a child and his/her environment to how he/she develops. Firstly, the microsystem refers to the immediate environment of the child such as the child’s family however the mesosystem refers to interrelationships between two or more microsystems such as the interaction between the child’s f amily and the child’s day care centre. Thirdly, the exosystem refers to the social settings beyond the immediate environment that indirectly influences the child’s development (e.g. mass media) and lastly, the macrosystem referes to the larger cultural context of the child’s environment (e.g. political system) To illustrate, when a child interacts with his/her mother and father, the infant or child contributes actively to the reciprocal relationship (microsystem). However, when a family conflict arises between parents, it can cause the child to behave differently in school (mesosystem, interaction between family and school). Also, the exosystem is seen in through the media such as the television at the child’s home where the macrosystem of political and historical occurrences can be seen to influence the media, family and school. Through bronfenbrenner’s approach, one can understand child development through social and cultural means as its emphasi s is on reciprocal influences/relationships. When defining culture, one must understand the different context of which culture is defined. As culture refers to a specialised lifestyle of values, beliefs, behaviours, and communicating (Devito, 2003), different cultures within different context (e.g. countries or situations such as poverty) would apply these specialised behaviours differently. Thus, development based on culture would differ according to the context of development/culture. Stratton (1988) concluded that childhood development when understood according to culture must include the parents’ cultural beliefs, the child cultural environment and the child’s cultural beliefs (developed according to experience). In a study by McDermontt, Char, Robillard, Hsu, Tseng, and Ashton (1983, cited in Stratton, 1988) which studied the differences between families of Japanese and Caucasian origin families, they found that there was a significant difference in the cultural attitudes of the two types of families towards their children thus resulting in two different development outcomes for the children. The Japanese families, being of the collective orientation, resulted in children who were more developed cognitively in ways of deep thinking and feeling. However, for the Caucasian families, being of the individualistic orientation, resulted in children who were more expressive. These findings were duplicated across different cultures in two other studies of cross cultural effects on development. Barker, Kounin and Wright (1943) studied the development of children in the Indian pueblo culture as compared to the Hopi culture. They concluded that children who from both cultures differed in attitudes and overt behaviour. In addition, Aimin and Guiying (2004) in their comparative study of Chinese and American Children in how they rated their self concept showed a clear difference between cultures. The Chinese children viewed themselves much positively as compared to the American children. These studi es clearly present culture as a vital factor that influences childhood development. In conclusion, the two factors of the social environment and the cultural context of a child as an individual very much influences the development of the child psychologically and emotionally during infancy and early childhood. Attachment as defined as between two people is seen to be a crucial part of a child’s social and cultural environment and must be integrated into one’s socialcultural system whenever one desires to understand a child. References Aimin, W. Guiying, R. (2004). A Comparative Study of Self-Concept in Chinese and American Children. Chinese Mental Health Journal, 18(5), 294-299. Retrieved August 11, 2005 from PsycInfo database from World Wide Web: http://gateway.ut.ovid.com.ezproxy.otago.ac.nz/gw2/ovidweb.cgi Barker, R.G., Kounin, J. S. Wright, H. F. (1943). Child behavior and development: A course of representative studies (pp. 621-636). New York, NY, US: McGraw-Hill. viii, 652 pp. Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss: Attachment (Vol. 1). London: The Hogarth Press. Devito, .J. A. (2003). Human communication: The basic course (9th ed.). New York: Allyn Bacon. Drewery, W. Bird, L. (2004). Human development in Aoteatoa: A journey through life (2nd ed.). Australia: McGraw-Hill. Mussen, P. H. (1973). The psychological development of the child (2nd ed.). USA: Prentice-Hall. Sigelman, C. K. Rider, E. A. (2003). Life-Span: Human Development (4th ed.). USA: Wadworth/Thomson Learning. Stratton, P. (1988). Parents’ Conceptualisation of Children as the Organizer of Culturally Structured Environments. In Valsiner, J. (Eds.), Child Development Within Cultural Structured Enviroments: Parental Cognition and Adult –Child Interaction (Vol. 1) (pp. 5-29). USA: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Valsiner, J. (1988). Child Development Within Cultural Structured Enviroments: Parental Cognition and Adult –Child Interaction (Vol. 1). USA: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Van der Veer, R., Van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (1988). Early Childhood attachment and later problem solving: A Vygotskian perspective. In Valsiner, J. (Eds.), Child Development Within Cultural Structured Enviroments: Parental Cognition and Adult –Child Interaction (Vol. 1) (pp. 215-246). USA: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Research Papers on Childhood Development in a Cultural Context - Childhood Development Research PaperInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementThree Concepts of PsychodynamicThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseResearch Process Part OneRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andPETSTEL analysis of IndiaPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of Self

18 Terrific Christmas Gifts Ideas For College Students

18 Terrific Christmas Gifts Ideas For College Students Oh, the weather outside is frightful†¦ Isnt it? And you still have to get outside and buy gifts for your college friends. Oh, wait! You can actually stay at home and just order them online. Its definitely not the hardest but not the easiest thing to do. Check out our list of Christmas gifts for college students before your shopping anxiety starts. Gadgets A perfect gift is not only nice and memorable but also useful, especially for a student. Gadgets are great helpers in studying. Hence they are brilliant gifts. Ask yourself what you would like to get for Christmas. Perhaps, your friends have the same tastes. Also, you need to make sure your friends dont already own one of the items you want to get for them. Some of the gadgets listed below may become one of the best motivational gifts for college students. 1 Headphones Wireless or noise-canceling headphones are what each college student needs for concentrating while studying in noisy dorm rooms. They are pretty affordable, and there are a bunch of various types of them. Wireless headphones are great for working out, running or doing chores while listening to favorite music or audiobook. Noise canceling headphones are designed to block ambient noises and talks so that one can focus while studying. Source 2 Portable chargers Your friends will definitely appreciate a charger as a gift. Having your devices dead while not be able to plug it in might become a tense situation. Portable and wireless chargers are multipurpose and can be used with different gadgets. There are even solar chargers which are indispensable while camping. Source 3 Digital cameras Although modern cell phones have built-in cameras, students who are interested in photography would prefer professional digital camera. They have much more features and will be more functional for vlogs and photoshoots. You can easily find a compact and powerful camera for under $500. Source 4 Digital notepads Its easier to carry one small notepad in your bag or backpack rather than a pile of notebooks. It saves all the written files to Evernote account and it is great for taking notes or drawing schemes, charts, maps, and diagrams. Quick access to files and high usability makes digital notepads great gifts. Source 5 Bluetooth speakers Portable speakers are great for parties or relaxed chilling out. It can play music, audio books and calming sounds of nature or white noise. It can be voice-controlled and connected to any device. Source 6 Fitness trackers Dont forget about sports lovers. Sports watches help to keep track of pulse, burnt calories and the number of miles you run daily. They are one of the best gifts for college boyfriend or girlfriend. Source Games, Interests, and Hobbies 1 Party games â€Å"Never have I ever† set or â€Å"Cards Against Humanity† will draw attention to your friend if he or she brings it to a party. They are affordable, funny and easy to play, so if you dont know what to give your friend for Christmas, buy some good board game. Source 2 A survival set If your college mate is interested in hiking or forest exploring, get him a backpack with a built-in solar battery, or a multipurpose knife with a set of different useful tools for camping. There are also sets that contain everything you need for surviving in the wild nature or in case of zombie apocalypse. This is an excellent gift for guys. Source 3 Craft materials Its a great gift for college girls and boys who are in love with crafting. Consider these items: supplies for knitting (yarn, needles, and crochets); supplies for woodcarving (wax, carbon sheets, wooden mallet); materials for jewelry making (beads, cords, threads, and tools); wax and molds for candle making. It all depends on what kind of handicraft your buddy prefers. Just ask what they need and they will appreciate your attention to their hobby. Source 4 Personalized T-shirts or bags Find out if your friend is a fan of a certain band, movie or comic-book characters. Its much easier to buy a perfect gift for a person whose tastes you are familiar with. Afterward, you should go for an online-shopping for the item you chose. Source 5 Funny gifts It may be a set of party glasses with funny lettering, joking book (â€Å"The Manual to Manhood,† â€Å"Lifes Missing Instruction Manual†), a funny pillow or a pack of lottery tickets. Source 6 Gift cards It is a present for someone who you think will spend money more wisely than you. You can find different kinds of gift cards for many stores online, even Itunes. And dont forget about subscriptions, such as for Netflix. Source Household Items And Devices Being away from home may be difficult and intimidating. You may find some of these useful Christmas gift ideas for college freshmen and other students suitable for this year presents. Keep in mind the items youll see below if youre looking for a gift for college boyfriend or girlfriend. 1 A cookbook or cooking utensils Its always a great gift for a beginner cook, especially for a student who has left his home and now is about to start adult life with cooking his own meal. Who knows, maybe one day your present will lead your friend to become the next Jamie Oliver. Source 2 A portable vacuum cleaner Keeping a dorm room clean might be hard sometimes. Portable vacuum cleaners with sanitizing feature are great gifts for students who live in rooms with a messy person. Such vacuum cleaners are compact and easy to transport, and still, they are powerful enough to clean the room perfectly. Source 3 Cozy socks or pajamas Gifts that make your friend feeling like home are a perfect cure for homesick. Pick some cozy and warm pajamas and a pair of funny socks. Wearing warm and soft pajamas and a pair of socks with funny prints will create a Christmas mood even if your friend is far from home at the time. Source 4 Candles and blankets These are great gifts for college girls because they love making their bedrooms neat and cozy. Some good smelling candles and furry woolen blankets will make a great present in a cold wintry day. Source 5 Instant photo printers for phones Help your college friend to decorate a room with printed photos to make the atmosphere brighter and more relaxed. Instant printers dont have any wires. You can use them to print favorite photos from any cell phone. Source 6 A travel mug or a water bottle Thermal mugs help to keep your drinks hot or cold for a long time. So they are very useful when one needs to spend hours in a library or when someone is going to be outside for a long period of time. Coffee-loving college students should get enough caffeine or they can start freaking out. Source Find the best present for your college friend, considering their preferences. But if you are unaware of what preferences they have, theres a thing each student needs money. We know that sound boring, but its better than nothing. Perhaps, the next year you will succeed to choose some better presents.

The impact between organisation culture and the role of the manager Assignment

The impact between organisation culture and the role of the manager - Assignment Example nes ‘Corporate Culture’ as †The philosophy, values behavior, dress code etc that together constitute the unique style and policies of the Company..† In the words of Welford and Prescott, ‘Corporate Culture is â€Å"a set of shared values, beliefs and attitudes, held in common by the people of that Company.† So a reasonable dimension of Organizational Culture has emerged and we can understand that this merely refers to the mental makeup of persons governing the organization, those employed by the organization and those in business with the organization. Every organization is made up of both ‘formal’ as well as ‘informal’ dimensions. According to (Blau and Scott, 1962) it is simply not possible to know or understand the workings of an organisation without a sound understanding of its informal character.† According to a study made by Pettigrew â€Å"organizational cultures consist of cognitive systems explaining how people think, reason, and make decisions (Pettigrew, 1979) Some researchers argued that the concept of organizational culture emerged in part out of the dissatisfaction with the fundamental inadequacies in traditional methods of exploring the dynamics of organizations (Van Maanen, 1979; Evered and Louis, 1981). According to Welford & Prescott organization, Culture that is in existence stems form a variety of elements, like background of the organization, the social environment, the economy, educational levels of its employers and employees, language, ethnic practices, climatic conditions etc and these conditions govern the makeup of Culture that plays a role in how people in the organization are treated, what type of decisions are being taken, how the organization present itself and what message does it project to the outside world. Simply explained ‘Power Culture’ refers to those people who wield the highest power in the organization, in addition to how this power is used. This would provide the root for the culture that a

My opinion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

My opinion - Essay Example Such technological intelligence has enabled them to be the leaders in some of the most cherished brands of automobiles and machinery in the world. So dedicated in their work, the Germans always believe in perfection and competence in anything they do (Detlev 78).Interestingly, Germans are a people who talk with a lot of specificity and precision. The culture of beating around the bush and hiding the truth is totally news to them. Wrong a German anywhere and they shall reprimand you on the spot! It is common to see most people in several countries proud to be associated with the histories of their countries. In America for instance, the history of the United States is something every American cherishes. On the contrary, the most Germans do not generally feel obligated to associate with the history of their country. Perhaps this is a result of the turbulent nature of the German history. I feel a great learning opportunity exists in the analysis of the German cultural context and how the Germans have managed to hold their country together amid the turbulent nature of the present age. In any case, the whole course was a rich inundating

Thin Lines between Histories Essay Example for Free

Thin Lines between Histories Essay The connection—history and culture between Africans and Americans can be traced way back in ancient history (Duignan and Lewis xiii). No event linked these two groups—Africans and Americansand Australian natives or the Aboriginal people until the European expansion beginning in the 15th century. In a history review â€Å"Aboriginal Australians,† Nicolas Peterson states that, changes in native-Australian-living began in 17th century. Apparently, customary relationship between Africans and Americans and later the Afro-American, was established in the same event—European occupation. The article â€Å"Aboriginal Australians† reviewed by Nicolas Peterson, claims that, the Aborigines or Aboriginal people were the indigenous occupants of Australia. For at least 50,000 years they have lived and have inhabited every region of Australia. Following their accustomed practice, this tribe lived as hunters and gatherers in the vast lands of Australia. The word Aboriginal is a collective term for indigenous tribes of various cultures. Researches claim that, Aboriginal people also inhabited North America, particularly in Canada which was recognized as parcel of Indians, Metis and Inuit with unique traditional practices, and spiritual beliefs. Native Americans, also known as American Indians, Indians, and native peoples were indigenous peoplefirst people. of North America, as the writing entitled â€Å"American Indians† suggests. They had lived throughout the continent for thousands of years before the European exploration. They built houses and excelled in utilizing the resources around them. On the other hand, African Americans, the Afro-Americans or the American Blacks or Black Americans, whose ancestors are from the West Africa, were considered as a racial group in the United States. Though, they also claimed the European, Native American and Asian ancestry (Duignan and Lewis 6). The two thin lines connecting these tribes lie in the episode of history in the 15th and 17th century. First, the occupation of the Europeans in Australia, Africa and America marked the beginning of the histories of the said three continents; second, while the expedition of the Europeans transcended, Aboriginal history and that of Native and Afro-American history were meeting in the same grounds—declining population and diminishing culture and tradition. In the 15th century, European settlers and explorers began to arrive in the Americas, bringing with them a mass number of Africans, beginning in 1619 from the West Africa, as slaves in farms and European industries, based on â€Å"American Indians†. European wars—natives fighting for their lands and diseases depreciated Native American population. Native Americans learned to work with Europeans by abandoning some of their traditions and adopting new technologies. Duignan and Lewis agree that, slave trade became America’s first link to Africa. Slavery existed in large scale—as the demand for slaves increases, the number of Africans in America also increases intensely and so the Afro-American population. African Americans provided most of the labor for the Europeans. Most of the Africans—who became slaveswere employed to subsistence farming and raising livestock. Their natural abilities both in industries and agricultural fields gave them an advantage as laborers of Americas (6). In 1788, as Nicolas Peterson argues in â€Å"Aboriginal Australians,† the invaders of the West began colonizing Australia. The 17th century marked the devastating period of history in the Aboriginal way of life. The new settlers immediately interrupted the life of the Aboriginal natives, taking over their rich fisheries, sources of water and farm land. Similarly, a number of Aboriginal people died from the outbreak of European diseases and from the struggle to win the control of their lands. Europeans changed the way of life as well as the history of the Aboriginal people and of the Native American to worst. These tribes have lived in their lands long before the colonization happened—the Europeans took it away. They never came in contact with epidemics—the Europeans introduced and brought diseases to their lands. They had the same old tradition and spiritual beliefs—the Europeans attempted to export theirs to them. These changes caused the largest decline in population recorded in history and also a large impact on the history and culture of the natives of America and Australia. And even so with the Africans whose population grew more in the Americas. Europeans conquered countries trying to expand their political power and land ownership. As they did this, their cultures were also expanding and taking over the rich and endemic culture of the Aboriginal people, Native Americans and Afro-Americans. The Native Americans and the Afro-Americans affected the existence of each tribe. The first had its own rich tradition before the Africans were introduced by the Europeans, which it shared to the Negros. The African, likewise, had unique technologies and ways of living, which it allowed to make known to the natives of America. Duignan and Lewis emphasized the dependence of Americans upon the African labor and population (16). The Aboriginal people, nonetheless, were enjoying their fruitful culture long before the colonizers came. And the same lines fall here, both the Aboriginal history and the Native and Afro-American history were marked by the overpowering Europeans. That these Westerners went down to meet the Africans, sent them to America, went east and conquered Australia. But the line does not end there. The lessened population of the continents and tribes they overpowered due to same reasons—land loss and diseasesand the weakened culture during the European occupation, changed the whole course of the parallel histories of the Aboriginal people and Native and Afro-American populations.

Increasing Literacy in Children Kindergarten through Sixth Grade with A

Illiteracy has been a reoccurring predicament ever since people have been able to read. Either children do not understand how to read and write in school, or they require extra help in becoming skilled in the areas of reading and writing. After school programs were created to help schools increase the literacy development in children. An after school program is defined as a program that offers its services to children after school to help them with arts, crafts, sports, or homework. Are after school programs fulfilling their duty to increase the level of literacy in children? After school programs are increasing the level of literacy in children kindergarten through sixth grade because they were created to help children increase their literacy level since schools are not providing children kindergarten through sixth grade with help in increasing their literacy level. The common definition of illiteracy is the inability to read and write. The Funk and Wagnalls Dictionary defines illiteracy as the â€Å"inability to read and write, an error in speaking or writing.† Even if there is a fault in the speaking or writing of a child, that child is defined as illiterate. If that is the definition of illiteracy, is the definition of a literate child one who never makes a mistake in his or her reading and writing? A child will always make mistakes in reading and writing because the child is human, but if that child never progresses in his or her ability to read and write then the child is defined as illiterate. Funk and Wagnalls Dictionary defines literacy as â€Å"the state of being literate† and a literate individual as one that is â€Å"able to read and write, educated, cultured.† Literacy is also indicated by comprehension and a progres... ...b. 2005 . â€Å"Illiteracy.† Funk & Wagnalls Standard Desk Dictionary. 6th ed. 1983. â€Å"Literacy.† Funk & Wagnalls Standard Desk Dictionary. 6th ed. 1983. â€Å"Literate.† Funk & Wagnalls Standard Desk Dictionary. 6th ed. 1983. Prosser, Theresa M., and Levesque, Jeri A. â€Å"Supporting Literacy Through Service Learning.† Reading Teacher Sep. 1997: 31 par. Academic Search Premier. EBSCOhost. University of Denver Penrose Library, Denver. 19 Jan. 2005 . Sylva, Kathy, and Evans, Emma. â€Å"Preventing Failure at School.† Children and Society 13 Sep. 1999: 9p. Academic Search Premier. EBSCOhost. University of Denver Penrose Library, Denver. 19 Jan. 2005 .

Data collection methods

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. Data Collection Techniques include the following: Personal Interviews Conducting personal interviews is probably the best method of data collection to gain first hand information. It is however, unsuitable in cases where there are many people to be interviewed and questioned.Questionnaires Questionnaires are good methods of data collection when there is a need for a articular class of people to be questioned. The researcher can prepare a questionnaire according to the data he requires and send it to the responders. Detailed observation Data can also most effectively be obtained with means of observational skills. The researcher can visit a place and take down details of all that he observes which is actually required for aiding in his research. Here, the resear cher has to make sure that what he is observing is real.Group Discussions Group discussions are good techniques where the researcher has to know what the people in a group think. He can come to a conclusion based on the group discussion hich may even involve good debate topics of research. Internet Data The Internet is an ocean of data, where you can get a substantial amount of information for research. However, researchers need to remember that they should depend on reliable sources on the web for accurate information. Books and Guides These data collection techniques are the most traditional ones that are still used in today's research.Unlike the Internet, it is sure that you will get good and accurate information from books and published guides. Using Experiments Sometimes, for obtaining the full understanding of the scenario, researchers have to onduct actual experiments on the field. Research experiments are usually carried out in fields such as science and manufacturing. This is the best method for gaining an in-depth understanding of the subject related to the research. There are many other methods of data collection which may help the researcher to draw statistical as well as conceptual conclusions.For obtaining accurate and dependable data, researchers are suggested to combine two or more of the above mentioned data collection techniques. http://www. buzzle. com/articles/data- collection-techniques. html Types of Data Data types are categorized into two types: Primary data and Secondary data. Primary This is data that is collected by the researcher himself. The data is gathered through questionnaires, interviews, observations etc. Secondary data This is data that is collected, compiled or written by other researchers eg. ooks, journals, newspapers internet etc. The following steps are used to collect data Review ; compile secondary source information Plan ; design data collection instruments To gather primary information Data collection Data analysis and interpretation Siddiqui, S. A. (2012) Key questionnaire design principles . Keep the questionnaire as short as possible. 2. Ask short, simple, and clearly worded questions. 3. Start with demographic questions to help respondents get started comfortably. 4. Use dichotomous (yes I no) and multiple choice questions. . Use open-ended questions cautiously. 6. Avoid using leading-questions. 7. Pretest a questionnaire on a small number of people. 8. Think about the way you intend to use the collected data when preparing the questionnaire. Which data collection method should the researcher use? Because of the biases inherent in any data-collection method, it is sometimes dvisable to use more than one method when collecting diagnostic data. The data from the different methods can be compared, and if consistent, it is likely the variables are being validly measured.Statistical inference permits us to draw conclusions about a population based on a sample. Sampling (i. e. selecting a sub-se t of a whole population) is often done for reasons of cost (it's less expensive to sample 1,000 television viewers than 100 million TV viewers) and practicality (e. g. performing a crash test on every automobile produced is impractical). The sampled population and the target population should be similar to one another. Types of sampling strategies: Probability: Why is it used? To generalize to population.Some examples: Simple random sample Stratified sample Cluster sample Systematic sample Non probability: When should it be used? Where generalizability not as important. Researcher wants to focus on â€Å"right cases. † Quota sample â€Å"Purposeful† sample â€Å"Convenience† or â€Å"opportunity' sample Sampling Plans A sampling plan is a method or procedure for specifying how a sample will be taken from a population. Three methods of sampling are: Simple Random Sampling Stratified Random Sampling Cluster Sampling. Random sampling is often the most common one u sed.Simple Random Sampling†¦ A simple random sample is a sample selected in such a way that every possible sample of the same size is equally likely to be chosen. Drawing three names from a hat containing all the names of the students in the class is an example of a simple random sample: any group of three names is as equally likely as picking any other group of three names. A stratified random sample is obtained by separating the population into mutually exclusive sets, or strata, and then drawing simple random samples from each stratum.Strata 1 : Gender : Male Female Strata 2 : Age ; 20 20-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 60 Strata 3 : Occupation professional clerical blue collar other We can enquire about the total population, make inferences within a stratum or make comparisons across strata Cluster Sampling A cluster sample is a simple random sample of groups or clusters of elements (vs. a simple random sample of individual objects). This method is useful when it is difficult or costl y to develop a complete list of the population members or when the population elements are widely dispersed geographically.Cluster sampling may increase sampling error due to similarities among cluster members. Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors†¦ Two major types of error can arise when a sample of observations is taken from a population: sampling error and nonsampling error. Sampling error refers to differences between the sample and the population that exist only because of the observations that happened to be selected for the sample. Reduce when sample size larger. Nonsampling errors are more serious and are due oms kes made in the acquisition ot data or due to the sample observations being selected improperly.Most likely caused be poor planning, sloppy work, etc. Errors in data acquisition†¦ †¦ arises from the recording of incorrect responses, due to: † incorrect easurements being taken because of faulty equipment, † mistakes made during transcription fr om primary sources, † inaccurate recording of data due to misinterpretation of terms, or † inaccurate responses to questions concerning sensitive issues. Nonresponse Error†¦ †¦ refers to error (or bias) introduced when responses are not obtained from some members of the sample, i. e. he sample observations that are collected may not be representative of the target population. The Response Rate (i. e. the proportion of all people selected who complete the survey) is a key survey parameter and helps in the nderstanding in the validity of the survey and sources of nonresponse error. The importance of ensuring accurate and appropriate data collection Both the selection of appropriate data collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly delineated instructions for their correct use reduce the likelihood of errors occurring.Issues related to maintaining integrity of data collection: Most, Craddick, Crawford, Redican, Rhodes, Rukenbrod, and Laws (2003) describe ‘quality assurance' and ‘quality control' as two approaches that can preserve data integrity and ensure the scientific validity of study results. Each approach is implemented at different points in the research timeline . Whitney, Lind, Wahl, (1998) Quality assurance – activities that take place before data collection begins Quality control – activities that take place during and after data collection Quality Assurance Since quality assurance precedes data collection, its main focus is ‘prevention' (i. . , forestalling problems with data collection). Prevention is the most cost-effective activity to ensure the integrity of data collection. In the social/behavioral sciences where primary data collection involves human subjects, researchers are taught to ncorporate one or more secondary measures that can be used to verify the quality of information being collected from the human subject. For example, a researcher conducting a surve y might be interested in gaining a better insight into the occurrence of risky behaviors among young adults as well as the social conditions that increase the likelihood and frequency of these risky behaviors.Two main points to note: 1) cross-checks within the data collection process and 2) data quality being as much an observation-level issue as it is a complete data set issue. Thus, data quality should be addressed for each individual measurement, for ach individual observation, and for the entire data set. Quality control While quality control activities (detection/monitoring and action) occur during and after data collection, the details should be carefully documented in the procedures manual.A clearly defined communication structure is a necessary pre-condition for establishing monitoring systems. There should not be any uncertainty about the flow of information between principal investigators and staff members following the detection of errors in data collection. A poorly deve loped communication structure encourages lax monitoring and limits opportunities for detecting errors. Quality control also identities the required responses, or ‘actions' necessary to correct taulty data collection practices and also minimize future occurrences.These actions are less likely to occur if data collection procedures are vaguely written and the necessary steps to minimize recurrence are not implemented through feedback and education.

Supply and Demand and Price Elasticity

Apple I-PHONES – Elasticity of supply and demand ABSTRACT I-PHONE' ELASTICITY OF DEMAND What determines price elasticity of Iphones demand? Demand for Iphones – It seems like Iphone sales are above expectation and Apple can't meet current demand. People all over the world are enthralled and want to hold one of the advanced and sexiest products in the market. The degree of necessity or whether the good is a luxury – goods deemed by consumers to be necessities tend to have an inelastic demand whereas luxuries will tend to have a more elastic demand because consumers can make do without luxuries when their budgets are stretched. It's likely to assume that Iphone considered as a luxury and in an economic recession customers can cut their spending on Iphones. The cost of switching between different phones – there may be difficulties involved in switching between different phones. In this case, using Iphone, with its unique applications and software might involve with issues of transferring data from one phone to another. This also imply when moving from using another phone to Iphone. I consider this part for some extent as an insignificant. Summarizing, Iphone is a very unique product, differentiated but have some competitors. Price elasticity of demand is definitely not inelastic but not perfectly elastic. If prices go up significantly, there's no doubt that quantity demanded declines. I-PHONE' ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY Price elasticity also affects supply. Products with an inelastic supply usually have a long lead time, with little power over the quantity produced. Hotel rooms are one example, because if there's a price change, hotel owners can't decide halfway through the growing season to provide more or less of rooms. On the other hand, products with a high elasticity of supply tend to come from industries that can change their production levels more quickly – for example, milk and dairy products. If we examine Iphone elasticity of supply we should consider Apple manufactures for being able to adapt to high demand. From past publications, we could learn that Apple had some issues with facing demand, and that it couldn't meet demand. From my perspective Apple incorrectly predicated its sales, and that was the basis for the shortage. Iphone supply should be more elastic than inelastic at the end of the day.

The Important Role of Athletics in Schools

The Important Role of Athletics in Schools The value of athletics in schools is significant and cannot be overlooked. It has a profound impact on individuals, the school as a whole, as well as the community. Athletics is powerful and transcendent. It can bridge gaps, bring people with relatively nothing in common together, and gives many participates unbelievable, life-altering opportunities. Here, we examine several of the key benefits of having an established, successful athletics program in your school. Many Meaningful Opportunities Virtually every little boy dreams of playing professional baseball, football, or basketball. Very few realize that dream, but it does not mean that athletics cannot provide them with other meaningful opportunities. The top tier athletes often receive a scholarship to attend college and continue their athletic career. For many, this may be their only opportunity to go to college. This opportunity, if taken advantage of, can be life-altering. For the majority, high school is the last time they will participate in organized athletics as a player. However, there are still other opportunities that may result because of their participation in and passion for school athletics. Coaching is a terrific way to stay involved with athletics. Many successful coaches were average high school players with both a passion and understanding of how the game was played but without the individual talent necessary to succeed at the next level. Athletics can also provide opportunities through relationships. In a team sport, players are typically close to one another. These relationships can span the length of a lifetime. Staying connected may provide you with a job or investment opportunity. It may simply provide you with life-long friends who have your back in any situation. School Pride Every school administrator and teacher want the student body to have pride in their school. Athletics is the building block of promoting school pride. Pre-game events such as homecoming, pep rallies, and parades are intended to show off that school pride. We love to support our team no matter whether we win or whether we lose. We hate our rivals and despise them, even more, when they beat us. School pride is about coming together for every game- putting individual differences aside and yelling and cheering loudly together in support of your team. It is about painting our faces and wearing school colors. It is about the student section coming up with creative chants that get in the other teams heads before the game even begins. School pride is about staying after the game and singing the alma mater, no matter whether you win or whether you lose. School pride creates a bond between an individual and the school. This bond spans the course of a lifetime. It can be measured by the sense of pride that you feel when your high school wins a state championship twenty years after you graduate. It is the joy that you feel when you have a child attending and playing for your alma mater. It is a connection that can be both deep and meaningful. School Recognition Teachers and schools rarely receive positive media attention. When you see a story on those subjects, it is typically negative in nature. However, the coverage of athletics is the exact opposite. Sport sells! Having a successful athlete and/or team will likely give you positive media coverage within and around your community. While a teacher with a successful academic program will garner little to no attention, a team with a 10–0 record will be followed closely by the media and the community. This type of notoriety is celebrated. It makes the school attractive to families looking to move into a community that values an outstanding athletics program. It also puts fans in the stands, which translates to more money being poured into the athletics department. This allows coaches and athletic directors the freedom to purchase equipment and training tools that may continue to give their athletes a competitive advantage. Most schools do not want to have an athletic team. Instead, they want to have an athletic program. A program is continuously successful year after year. They build and nurture talent at an early age. Programs garner the most athletic success and, thus, attention. A good player at a well-known program will have a better chance of  receiving a scholarship than a good player on a lesser known team. Student Motivation Athletics can serve as a powerful academic motivator for athletes who would otherwise underperform in the classroom. There are many students who see school as secondary to athletics. As adults, we realize that academics are of far greater importance than athletics. However, as teenagers, the academic side was probably not the center of our focus as it should have been. The good news is that schools require their student-athletes to maintain a certain grade average (typically 60% or above) to participate in athletics. Many students stay in school and keep their grades up only because of their desire to compete in athletics. This is a sad reality but may also provide the greatest reason for keeping athletics in schools. Athletics also serves as motivation for staying out of trouble. Athletes know that if they get in trouble, there is a reasonable chance that they will be suspended for games or parts of a game. This does not mean that every athlete makes the best decision every time. However, the prospect of playing athletics has been a powerful deterrent from making wrong choices for many student-athletes. Essential Life Skills Athletics provides athletes with several benefits including the acquisition of valuable life skills that will benefit them throughout their life. These skills are more beneficial than the games themselves, and their impact can be powerful and transcending. Some of these skills include: Effort - This is defined as giving it everything you have in both practice and games. Effort can overcome the lack of talent in many cases. A player who gives 100% effort is said to have heart. Life lesson: Give your best no matter what and you cannot question yourself in the end.Hard work - It is the preparation you put into becoming a better player before the game is played. This includes strength and endurance training, individual practice time, and film study. Life lesson: Preparation is the key to success. If you work hard to prepare, mistakes are less likely to occur.Self-discipline -  It is the ability to maintain and carry out the role the coaches have determined within the game plan. This includes understanding your own individual strengths and weaknesses. Life lesson: Stay on task to get the job done no matter what distractions there may be.Teamwork -  This is the ability to work with others to complete a goal successfully. A team will only be successful if each individ ual fulfills their role. Life lesson: Working with others is an essential part of being successful. Doing your own thing can be detrimental and lead to many problems. Time management - This is the ability to fulfill all obligations including practice, homework, family, friends, etc. Life lesson: You must be well-balanced and adept at handling all aspects of your life so that you are not overwhelmed and stressed out.

Symptoms of the Black Death

Symptoms of the Black Death The Black Death is a plague which killed millions of people. In one particularly destructive explosion, over a third of the whole European population might have died in a few years in the mid 14th century, a process which changed history, birthing, among other things, the start of the modern age and the Renaissance. For a history of the Black Death in Europe, see our page here. This is an explanation of what happens when someone contracts it. You really have to hope you never do! How you get the Black Death Despite plenty of people trying to claim other things, the evidence comfortably points to The Black Death being Bubonic Plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia Pestis . A human being usually receives this by being bitten by a flea which has ingested the disease from the blood of a house rat. The infected flea has had its system blocked by the disease, and remains hungry, regurgitating older infected blood into a human before drinking new blood, spreading infection. The rat’s flea doesn’t usually target humans, but seeks them out as new hosts once their colony of rats die off from the plague; other animals could also be affected. Plague carrying fleas didn’t have to come straight from a rat, as the fleas could survive for several weeks in bundles of cloth and other items humans conveniently came into contact with. On rarer occasions, a human could receive the disease from infected droplets which had been sneezed or coughed out into the air from a sufferer of a va riation called Pneumonic Plague. Even rarer still was infection from a cut or sore. Symptoms Once bitten, a victim experienced symptoms like headaches, chills, high temperatures and extreme tiredness. They might have nausea and pain throughout their body. Within several days the bacteria had begun affecting the body’s lymph nodes, and these swelled up into painful large lumps called ‘buboes’ (from which the disease takes its popular name: Bubonic Plague). Usually those nodes closest to the initial bite were first, which normally meant in the groin, but those under the arms and in the neck were also affected. They could reach the size of an egg. Suffering great pain, you could then die, roughly a week after you were first bitten. From the lymph nodes the plague could spread and internal bleeding would begin. The sufferer would expel blood in their waste, and black spots could appear all over the body. Sufferers with the spots almost invariably died, and this is noted in the chronicles of the day. The disease could spread to the lungs, giving the victim Pneumonic Plague, or into the bloodstream, giving Septicaemic Plague, which killed you before the buboes appeared. Some people did recover from the Black Death – Benedictow gives a figure of 20% - but contrary to the beliefs of some survivors they did not gain an automatic immunity. Medieval Reaction Medieval doctors identified numerous symptoms of the plague, many of which correlate with modern knowledge. The process of the illness through its stages wasn’t fully understood by medieval and early modern doctors, and some interpreted the buboes as signs the body was trying to vent foul liquids. They then attempted to relieve the illness by lancing the buboes. A punishment from God was seen at the frequent underlying course, although quite how and why God was inflicting this was heatedly discussed. The situation wasnt one of total scientific blindness, as Europe has always been blessed with proto-scientists, but it was confused and unable to react like modern science. Even so, you can still see this confusion exist today when it comes to popular understanding of illness.

Got to Have a Goal Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Got to Have a Goal - Assignment Example Sales and compensation are integral to modern business organizations. These aspects are ascertained to impose paramount impact on the overall performance of the businesses in the contemporary world. Thus, this assignment intends to address these two major aspects. Correspondingly, the assignment is segregated into two parts. The first part reflects upon the three major techniques of goal setting in sales and provides a case study of a company, which exemplifies best practices in establishing sales goals. Similarly, the second part of the assignment considers the discussion made about three major sales incentives along with elaborating a case study on a company, exemplifying best practices in sales incentives. It is claimed that before striving any kind of business success, it is crucial for an individual to remain much aware about what he/she is striving for. The substantial knowledge regarding the aspects for which the individual is striving enable in directing efforts towards specific directions that result in attaining the best outcomes. Correspondingly, goal setting is advocated to be vital. It is essential for every individual to understand the prominence of goal setting in pursuit of certain aspects. Same rule is identified to be relevant for sales professionals in order to gain personal and organizational success. Notably, it has been argued that there are certain specific goal setting techniques in sales that required to be followed by sales professionals for gaining greater success. Failure to incorporate appropriate goal-setting techniques is observed to cause financial loss and in certain circumstances, it may also result in job loss. Most importantly, the failure may sabotage the chances of sales professionals to succeed. Thus, it is decisive for sales professionals to apply effective goal setting techniques frequently. The three basic goal-setting techniques

Stem Cells Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Stem Cells - Research Paper Example Stem Cells The most important characteristic of stem cells is the potential to transform into different types of cells. Besides, stem cells can perform the role of a repair system within human body. Within this scenario, Embryonic Stem Cells are generally used for regenerative medical purposes. On the other side, Adult Stem Cells are helpful for the treatment of deadly diseases generally noticed among human beings. The Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells are used for research purposes, aiming to develop proper medication for deadly diseases. So, one can see that the scientific research related to stem cells can solve some of the health problems faced by human beings in general. Thesis statement: The stem cells like Embryonic Stem Cells (ESC), Adult Stem Cells (ASC), and Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSC) are helpful to develop medicines and proper remedy for deadly diseases, especially like bone-marrow transplantation for blood cancer. Stem cell types This section is broadly divided in to: Embryonic Stem Cells, Adult Stem Cells, and The Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells. Embryonic Stem Cells These stem cells are developed from human embryos, especially from the inner parts of embryos undergoing the process of growth. Crocker (2008) states that, â€Å"Stem cells, both embryonic and adult, could be used to replace damaged tissue in several ways† (p.6). To be specific, these cells within this stage of growth can be used for tissue transplantation and similar medical uses. But these cells cannot be simply injected into human bodies because the same may develop into unexpected tumors. Besides, some human bodies may reject this type of stem cells and scientists are working hard to find out an apt solution for this problem. Still, these stem cells can be used for regenerative medication purposes. On the other side, one can see that the research work related to these stem cells provide hope to humanity because the same was successfully used in the year 2010 among the victims of spinal injury. In short, further research within this field may prove importance of this stem cell because research work related to the same is undergoing gradual progress. Adult Stem Cells These stem cells are generally used for research and treatment purposes. In addition, the research on this type of stem cells attracts less criticism because it is not produced from embryos. Zyl (2009) states that, â€Å"Some physicians and scientists believe that adult stem cells are not as versatile or effective as embryonic stem cells, while others have shown that adult stem cells are highly effective against most major diseases† (p. xiii). As these stem cells are collected from adults, there is less risk because rejection related to human immunity is out of focus. Besides, medical treatment related to these stem cells proves to be successful because the same is used for the treatment of leukaemia and other diseases. Still, further research can unveil the future scope of this type of stem cells within the context of medical treatment. So, one can see that the research related to this type of stem cells show rapid progress and is helpful to fight some deadly diseases. The Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells The IP stem cells are developed by scientists by reprogramming the same to acquire the main characteristics of ES cells. To be specific, this stem cell is important within the scenario of stem cell research, especially in